Joining the Imperial Roman army
First you must choose a Roman name. The probatio is the official interview to join the Roman army where the recruit presents a Letter of Recommendation written by his family's patron, or some high-ranking official. A recommendation from a veteran is looked on very favorably, especially if written by a soldier who has served with the same unit that the recruit wants to join.
The Imperial Roman Army recruit requirements of the 2nd century AD
1. Roman citizenship. A peregrinus (non-citizen) can join the auxiliaries.
2. Bachelor status. However, a married man can sign up, but this acts as a unilateral divorce.
3. Whole and healthy body. You must have all fingers. Anyone caught mutilating themselves to escape army conscription will be severely punished.
4. A height of at least 5' 10" Roman feet (1.72 m). Exceptions are made for particularly sturdy-looking individuals.
5. A set of male genitalia. The emperor Trajan decreed that those with only one testicle could still serve.
6. Good eyesight.
7. Good character. Petty crime is fine, but you can't sign up to escape a major criminal trial, or the sentence of exile.
8. Previous profession is not critical, but there is a preference for recruits that were smiths, wagon-makers, butchers and huntsmen. Jobs associated with women's work, like weavers, confectioners or perfumers, and even fishermen, were less desirable to the army.
9. Some basic grasp of literacy and numeracy is useful, and education is essential for certain posts. The Roman army is a huge war-machine in need of smart men to oversee logistics, supplies, money, and performance of duties by the various units.
Once accepted by the probatio the recruit would receive an initial joining-payment viaticum (road-money). He is put through a four-month testing period to ensure his physical capability. However, until the sacramentum (swearing-in ceremony) he remains a civilian and can leave at any time without consequences. But once he has recited the sacred military oath he officially becomes a Roman soldier.
The Imperial Roman Army recruit requirements of the 2nd century AD
1. Roman citizenship. A peregrinus (non-citizen) can join the auxiliaries.
2. Bachelor status. However, a married man can sign up, but this acts as a unilateral divorce.
3. Whole and healthy body. You must have all fingers. Anyone caught mutilating themselves to escape army conscription will be severely punished.
4. A height of at least 5' 10" Roman feet (1.72 m). Exceptions are made for particularly sturdy-looking individuals.
5. A set of male genitalia. The emperor Trajan decreed that those with only one testicle could still serve.
6. Good eyesight.
7. Good character. Petty crime is fine, but you can't sign up to escape a major criminal trial, or the sentence of exile.
8. Previous profession is not critical, but there is a preference for recruits that were smiths, wagon-makers, butchers and huntsmen. Jobs associated with women's work, like weavers, confectioners or perfumers, and even fishermen, were less desirable to the army.
9. Some basic grasp of literacy and numeracy is useful, and education is essential for certain posts. The Roman army is a huge war-machine in need of smart men to oversee logistics, supplies, money, and performance of duties by the various units.
Once accepted by the probatio the recruit would receive an initial joining-payment viaticum (road-money). He is put through a four-month testing period to ensure his physical capability. However, until the sacramentum (swearing-in ceremony) he remains a civilian and can leave at any time without consequences. But once he has recited the sacred military oath he officially becomes a Roman soldier.
Sacramentum military oath
"Step forward, recruit ["Lucius Junius Brutus"], and swear by the gods of Rome, the manes of your ancestors, and your own honor an unbreakable oath that you will follow your commander wherever he may lead you. You will obey orders enthusiastically and without question. You relinquish the protection of the Roman civil law and accept the power of your commander to put you to death without trial for disobedience or desertion. You promise to serve under the standards for your allotted time of duty and not to leave before your commander discharges you. You will serve Rome faithfully, even at the cost of your life, and will respect the law with regards to civilians and your comrades in camp. Congratulations. You are now a soldier of Rome!"
The swearer is now sacer ("given to the gods") and damned if he breaks his oath, which was recited annually. For large groups, after the first man the next would swear "Idem in me" ("Me too").
The soldiers also gave a voluntary ius iurandum oath to defend each other: "I swear that I will not leave my comrades for fear or for flight, and will not quit the ranks save to fetch or pick up a weapon, to strike an enemy, or to save a comrade!"
"Step forward, recruit ["Lucius Junius Brutus"], and swear by the gods of Rome, the manes of your ancestors, and your own honor an unbreakable oath that you will follow your commander wherever he may lead you. You will obey orders enthusiastically and without question. You relinquish the protection of the Roman civil law and accept the power of your commander to put you to death without trial for disobedience or desertion. You promise to serve under the standards for your allotted time of duty and not to leave before your commander discharges you. You will serve Rome faithfully, even at the cost of your life, and will respect the law with regards to civilians and your comrades in camp. Congratulations. You are now a soldier of Rome!"
The swearer is now sacer ("given to the gods") and damned if he breaks his oath, which was recited annually. For large groups, after the first man the next would swear "Idem in me" ("Me too").
The soldiers also gave a voluntary ius iurandum oath to defend each other: "I swear that I will not leave my comrades for fear or for flight, and will not quit the ranks save to fetch or pick up a weapon, to strike an enemy, or to save a comrade!"
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Welcome to the Roman Army
After swearing in the soldier is entered on the official army rolls. He is carefully examined, and all identifying marks are recorded (such as moles, scars, etc) so that he may be recognized, for example, if found hiding as a deserter, or among a pile of corpses on the battlefield. The later Roman army might also tattoo or brand soldiers to permanently identify them. The legionary is given a signaculum (little-identifier) small tablet worn around his neck in a leather pouch, much like modern military dog-tags. |
Above: Leg VI signaculum for M Crassipes
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The legionary is then fitted out for all his armor and equipment which is provided by the army with the cost deducted annually from his pay. Julius Caesar set legionary's annual pay at 9 gold aurei (225 silver denarii, or 900 brass sestertii) paid in three installments. Domitian (84 AD) increased to 12 aurei (300 denarii). Septimius Severus (193 AD) increased to 20 aurei (500 denarii). On active campaign a legionary could also receive a sizable war-booty from enemy plunder and the sale of slaves. Domitian banned soldiers from banking more than 250 denarii with the unit funds, after a provincial governor tried to employ these to fund a rebellion. The emperors paid additional donatives on their accession and on special occasions.
The recruit joins an eight-soldier contubernium, like a modern squad, that share a tent and are rewarded or punished together as a unit. They are led by a Decanus, a junior non-commissioned officer, responsible for keeping discipline. Two auxiliary servant galearii (helmet-wearers), like modern support troops, take care of the squad pack-mule, ensure the water-supply, and often have special skills like blacksmithing or carpentry.
1 contubernium. 8 men in a tent.
10 contubernium = 1 century. 80 men commanded by a Centurion, Optio and Tesserarius.
6 centuries = 1 cohort. 480 men, the basic tactical unit.
10 cohorts = 1 Legion. 5,120 troops (the First Cohort is double-strength) plus 120 cavalry.
However, often Legions are not at full strength. When Leg VI Ferrata gave victory to Caesar at the Battle of Zela they were down to 1000 men. In battle, the Centurion stands front-right of the Century, while the Optio stands at the rear using his staff to keep order. The Signifer carries the military banner, working with the Cornicen (horn-blower) to transmit orders.
We are known by the inscription LEG VI FERRATA FC COH I abbreviated of leg(ionis) VI Ferrata F(idelis) C(onstans) coh(ors) I, which means The Sixth Legion Iron-clad, Loyal and Steadfast, First Cohort, First Century.
Under the emperor Augustus (14 AD) the imperial army comprised 25 legions and 250 auxiliary units (250,000 men). Nearly all legions were stationed along the borders (except the Praetorian Guard in Rome) in roughly 17 of the empire's 42 provinces. The Rhine-Danube river border with Germany also provided an easy naval supply route for the forts. By 211 AD the army reached a peak of 33 legions and 400 auxiliary units (450,000 men). The army then went into steep decline due to civil war, plague and barbarian invasion, until restored by Diocletian (290 AD) to about 400,000 men.
The recruit joins an eight-soldier contubernium, like a modern squad, that share a tent and are rewarded or punished together as a unit. They are led by a Decanus, a junior non-commissioned officer, responsible for keeping discipline. Two auxiliary servant galearii (helmet-wearers), like modern support troops, take care of the squad pack-mule, ensure the water-supply, and often have special skills like blacksmithing or carpentry.
1 contubernium. 8 men in a tent.
10 contubernium = 1 century. 80 men commanded by a Centurion, Optio and Tesserarius.
6 centuries = 1 cohort. 480 men, the basic tactical unit.
10 cohorts = 1 Legion. 5,120 troops (the First Cohort is double-strength) plus 120 cavalry.
However, often Legions are not at full strength. When Leg VI Ferrata gave victory to Caesar at the Battle of Zela they were down to 1000 men. In battle, the Centurion stands front-right of the Century, while the Optio stands at the rear using his staff to keep order. The Signifer carries the military banner, working with the Cornicen (horn-blower) to transmit orders.
We are known by the inscription LEG VI FERRATA FC COH I abbreviated of leg(ionis) VI Ferrata F(idelis) C(onstans) coh(ors) I, which means The Sixth Legion Iron-clad, Loyal and Steadfast, First Cohort, First Century.
Under the emperor Augustus (14 AD) the imperial army comprised 25 legions and 250 auxiliary units (250,000 men). Nearly all legions were stationed along the borders (except the Praetorian Guard in Rome) in roughly 17 of the empire's 42 provinces. The Rhine-Danube river border with Germany also provided an easy naval supply route for the forts. By 211 AD the army reached a peak of 33 legions and 400 auxiliary units (450,000 men). The army then went into steep decline due to civil war, plague and barbarian invasion, until restored by Diocletian (290 AD) to about 400,000 men.
Roman legionary training consists of repetitive exercises
1. Marching at military step of 5 km/hr (the entire army moves at least 20-miles-per-day).
2. Sword-training on the wooden pell-post.
3. Pilum-throwing practice (using dummy leather-topped pila). Stone-throwing, and one-spin sling-throwing.
4. Agility-training leaping over the vaulting-horse in full armor. Swimming practice.
5. Drill-training until every soldier of the unit moves in perfect unison to the centurion's commands.
The constant training toughened the men to unflinchingly bear all manner of hardships. When not directly engaged in war, other duties may include building or repairing buildings, bridges and roads, guarding villages, acting as military escorts, manning toll-booths, or being deployed as vexillations (detached-units) to assist other legions.
1. Marching at military step of 5 km/hr (the entire army moves at least 20-miles-per-day).
2. Sword-training on the wooden pell-post.
3. Pilum-throwing practice (using dummy leather-topped pila). Stone-throwing, and one-spin sling-throwing.
4. Agility-training leaping over the vaulting-horse in full armor. Swimming practice.
5. Drill-training until every soldier of the unit moves in perfect unison to the centurion's commands.
The constant training toughened the men to unflinchingly bear all manner of hardships. When not directly engaged in war, other duties may include building or repairing buildings, bridges and roads, guarding villages, acting as military escorts, manning toll-booths, or being deployed as vexillations (detached-units) to assist other legions.
Discipline is maintained by punishments, and a soldier is supposed to fear his centurion more than the enemy. A very minor infraction might simply have a soldier humiliated by being made to stand on guard-duty wearing his tunic without a belt (so it hangs like a woman's dress), whereas unforgivable cowardice might see an entire army "decimated" where the men are forced to draw lots and club every tenth man to death.
Some examples of the types of punishments meted out
1. Castigato - beating from the Centurion's vitis vine-stick.
2. Pecuniaria multa - pay docked for lost equipment, or to pay for damage caused in riotous conduct with locals.
3. Munerum indictio - extra duties like cleaning stables or latrines. Sometimes avoided by bribing the Centurion.
4. Militiae mutatio - loss of rank or long-service privileges.
5. Animadversio fustium - Flogging in front of unit for falling asleep on guard duty in camp.
6. Fustuarium - Asleep on guard duty in the field. Requires a military trial. The malefactor is beaten to death by the army.
7. Frumentum mutatum - The disgraced unit is made to eat horse-feed.
8. Extra muros - The disgraced unit is made to pitch their tents outside the camp walls.
9. Missio ignominosa - A disgraced man or unit is dismissed in shame as too useless for the Roman army.
Some examples of the types of punishments meted out
1. Castigato - beating from the Centurion's vitis vine-stick.
2. Pecuniaria multa - pay docked for lost equipment, or to pay for damage caused in riotous conduct with locals.
3. Munerum indictio - extra duties like cleaning stables or latrines. Sometimes avoided by bribing the Centurion.
4. Militiae mutatio - loss of rank or long-service privileges.
5. Animadversio fustium - Flogging in front of unit for falling asleep on guard duty in camp.
6. Fustuarium - Asleep on guard duty in the field. Requires a military trial. The malefactor is beaten to death by the army.
7. Frumentum mutatum - The disgraced unit is made to eat horse-feed.
8. Extra muros - The disgraced unit is made to pitch their tents outside the camp walls.
9. Missio ignominosa - A disgraced man or unit is dismissed in shame as too useless for the Roman army.
Start at the bottom and work your way to the top
Munifex - soldier with no rank. Chops wood, carries water, cleans latrines and does any dirty jobs.
Immunis - soldier immune from common drudgery due to specialist skills such as engineers, artillerymen, musicians, clerks, quartermasters, drill and weapons instructors, carpenters, hunters, medical staff and military police (c. 600 per legion).
Duplicarius - receives double-pay. Can be awarded regardless of rank.
Evocatus - retired veteran who re-enlists. Double-pay and no manual duties.
Cornicen (horn-blower) works with signifer to convey commands for the century. Double-pay.
Signifer - carries the century-standard open-hand emblem and is in charge of the funeral fund. Double-pay.
Aquilifer - carries the legion-standard Eagle (one per legion). Double-pay.
Vexillifer - carries a vexillum depicting the legion name and emblem. Double-pay.
Imaginifer - carries the standard bearing the emperor's image. First cohort only. Double-pay.
Tesserarius - second to Optio. Organises sentry-duty and daily watchword written on a tessera (wax-tablet). Double-pay.
Optio - second to Centurion. Double-pay.
Centurion - commands a Century (80 soldiers). Tenfold-pay.
Primi ordines (first rank) - five Centurions of the First Cohort. 30-fold-pay.
Pilus prior - Front Spear Centurions of the ten 1st centuries of the legion. 30-fold-pay.
Primus pilus - First Spear leading Centurion of the legion. Commands the First Cohort. 60-fold-pay.
Tribune angusticlavus ("narrow-stripe" tunic) - military tribune (five per legion) oversee camp administration.
Praefectus castrotum - Camp prefect in charge of the camp. Usually a retired First Spear centurion.
Tribune laticlavus ("broad-stripe" tunic) - second in command. Usually a young senator gaining experience.
Legion legate - army commander, senator, and perhaps provincial governor. Appointed by the emperor for about 3 years.
Legatus Augusti proparetore - commander of a military province. Appointed by the emperor.
Munifex - soldier with no rank. Chops wood, carries water, cleans latrines and does any dirty jobs.
Immunis - soldier immune from common drudgery due to specialist skills such as engineers, artillerymen, musicians, clerks, quartermasters, drill and weapons instructors, carpenters, hunters, medical staff and military police (c. 600 per legion).
Duplicarius - receives double-pay. Can be awarded regardless of rank.
Evocatus - retired veteran who re-enlists. Double-pay and no manual duties.
Cornicen (horn-blower) works with signifer to convey commands for the century. Double-pay.
Signifer - carries the century-standard open-hand emblem and is in charge of the funeral fund. Double-pay.
Aquilifer - carries the legion-standard Eagle (one per legion). Double-pay.
Vexillifer - carries a vexillum depicting the legion name and emblem. Double-pay.
Imaginifer - carries the standard bearing the emperor's image. First cohort only. Double-pay.
Tesserarius - second to Optio. Organises sentry-duty and daily watchword written on a tessera (wax-tablet). Double-pay.
Optio - second to Centurion. Double-pay.
Centurion - commands a Century (80 soldiers). Tenfold-pay.
Primi ordines (first rank) - five Centurions of the First Cohort. 30-fold-pay.
Pilus prior - Front Spear Centurions of the ten 1st centuries of the legion. 30-fold-pay.
Primus pilus - First Spear leading Centurion of the legion. Commands the First Cohort. 60-fold-pay.
Tribune angusticlavus ("narrow-stripe" tunic) - military tribune (five per legion) oversee camp administration.
Praefectus castrotum - Camp prefect in charge of the camp. Usually a retired First Spear centurion.
Tribune laticlavus ("broad-stripe" tunic) - second in command. Usually a young senator gaining experience.
Legion legate - army commander, senator, and perhaps provincial governor. Appointed by the emperor for about 3 years.
Legatus Augusti proparetore - commander of a military province. Appointed by the emperor.
Life in the Roman camp
1. Up before cock-crow, shaved and groomed, kit tidy. Cold breakfast (meat and cheese).
2. Fall in for morning parade assembly and roll-call. Announcements are made. Camp Prefect's daily orders, watchword issued, and assignments given.
3. Fall out into minor assemblies to receive Centurion's individual orders (or sick parades, and disciplinary hearings).
4. Guard duty - report to the Optio. Guards are placed on the gates, ramparts, stores, granary, sick-bay, and command tents. Guards accompany officers on their daily rounds.
5. Fatigues - camp maintenance such as cleaning the stables and latrines, sweeping, working the bath-house furnace, or helping load stores. Records are kept so that no man is over-worked unfairly. But centurions may accept a bribe to award lighter duties.
6. Drill training - Campus are field-drills, in formations, mock-fighting other units or taking entrenched positions. Basilica is drill-hall training (such as getting armed quickly), and ludus is arena-training (perhaps jumping ditches in full armor).
7. Dinner - good late-afternoon main-meal that can include meat, bread, cheese, vegetables, garum fish-sauce, beer or acetum (sour wine). A tribune oversees the army-contractors to ensure good food is provided for the troops.
8. Evening - leisure time to repair gear, socialize, or attend the bath-house that provides massages, dice-gambling and cheap drinks. If camp-leave is granted, the local village has taverns and brothels. Official camp entertainments include theatrical shows and gladiator fights. Private entertainments might include inter-unit wrestling matches and military games. Some soldiers have enough free time to run their own businesses on the side. A good soldier is entitled to annual leave, but given at times that suit the legion's manpower requirements.
9. Night Patrol - two conturbernia of every century are always on guard duty, so only eight tents are needed. The night-watch is divided into four 3-hour-shifts by the water-clock, summoned by the trumpeter and dismissed by the horn-blower. The tribunes select reliable circitores (patrolmen) to supervise the watches. Cavalry patrol outside the ramparts.
1. Up before cock-crow, shaved and groomed, kit tidy. Cold breakfast (meat and cheese).
2. Fall in for morning parade assembly and roll-call. Announcements are made. Camp Prefect's daily orders, watchword issued, and assignments given.
3. Fall out into minor assemblies to receive Centurion's individual orders (or sick parades, and disciplinary hearings).
4. Guard duty - report to the Optio. Guards are placed on the gates, ramparts, stores, granary, sick-bay, and command tents. Guards accompany officers on their daily rounds.
5. Fatigues - camp maintenance such as cleaning the stables and latrines, sweeping, working the bath-house furnace, or helping load stores. Records are kept so that no man is over-worked unfairly. But centurions may accept a bribe to award lighter duties.
6. Drill training - Campus are field-drills, in formations, mock-fighting other units or taking entrenched positions. Basilica is drill-hall training (such as getting armed quickly), and ludus is arena-training (perhaps jumping ditches in full armor).
7. Dinner - good late-afternoon main-meal that can include meat, bread, cheese, vegetables, garum fish-sauce, beer or acetum (sour wine). A tribune oversees the army-contractors to ensure good food is provided for the troops.
8. Evening - leisure time to repair gear, socialize, or attend the bath-house that provides massages, dice-gambling and cheap drinks. If camp-leave is granted, the local village has taverns and brothels. Official camp entertainments include theatrical shows and gladiator fights. Private entertainments might include inter-unit wrestling matches and military games. Some soldiers have enough free time to run their own businesses on the side. A good soldier is entitled to annual leave, but given at times that suit the legion's manpower requirements.
9. Night Patrol - two conturbernia of every century are always on guard duty, so only eight tents are needed. The night-watch is divided into four 3-hour-shifts by the water-clock, summoned by the trumpeter and dismissed by the horn-blower. The tribunes select reliable circitores (patrolmen) to supervise the watches. Cavalry patrol outside the ramparts.
Rome at war - on military campaign
1. Preparation - army moved out of camp and into tents, food increased, and training intensified so hard that the soldiers look forward to fighting the enemy instead.
2. Camp on the move constructed every night - the legionary dolabra mattock used for digging trenches 10-feet-deep before the ramparts and protective earthworks for siege-engines.
3. Pep-talk - the general announces the reasons for the war, how his strategy will bring victory, and the generous rewards.
4. Generally the Roman war strategy is to attack the enemy's capital city and so force them to fight in defense.
Order of march
1. Auxiliary scouts search in advance checking for ambush points, accompanied by archers as firing-cover in case they need to make a speedy retreat back to the heavy-armed advance cover-force that is strong enough to hold off any ambush until the rest of the army can deploy.
2. Pioneers include surveyors that will mark out the camp site, and engineers that will repair roads or build bridges.
3. The general, officers and cavalry are in the centre so that they may give orders and deploy quickly either way.
4. The vulnerable baggage-train of supplies, and siege-engines, are protected in the middle of the column.
5. The legions and auxiliaries follow at a leisurely pace (since impeded by the retinue ahead) marching six abreast, and led by their signifers and trumpeters. Their mule train with the personal baggage and legionary tents follows behind.
If fighting cavalry, the army will march in hollow-square formation to protect the baggage train. On broken ground the army may be split into individual columns to move faster. A Roman army marches at least 20-miles-per-day, and in single file can be ten miles long.
6. Supernumaries of supplementary forces or allied tribes (often keen to kill rival tribes) follow.
7. Rearguard - a covering force of infantry and cavalry ever alert for sneak attacks.
The Roman camp
The Roman camp is always erected in identical layout, so to be familiar to everyone in cases of emergency. It is positioned near a water source, but not in a defensive position, since the camp itself is defensive and full of soldiers (many enemies have tried attacking a Roman camp, but very few succeeded). Camp construction takes 3 hours overall, although the individual legionary tasks are much shorter. The surrounding ditch is excavated and the turf removed in wicker-baskets to build the ramparts. Food comprises cured-meat and grain that is ground in hand-mills to bake bread or thick porridge. Forage parties will hunt game or pillage enemy villages (auxiliaries are good at locating hidden stores). A Roman army on the march leaves the enemy countryside devastated in its wake.
1. Preparation - army moved out of camp and into tents, food increased, and training intensified so hard that the soldiers look forward to fighting the enemy instead.
2. Camp on the move constructed every night - the legionary dolabra mattock used for digging trenches 10-feet-deep before the ramparts and protective earthworks for siege-engines.
3. Pep-talk - the general announces the reasons for the war, how his strategy will bring victory, and the generous rewards.
4. Generally the Roman war strategy is to attack the enemy's capital city and so force them to fight in defense.
Order of march
1. Auxiliary scouts search in advance checking for ambush points, accompanied by archers as firing-cover in case they need to make a speedy retreat back to the heavy-armed advance cover-force that is strong enough to hold off any ambush until the rest of the army can deploy.
2. Pioneers include surveyors that will mark out the camp site, and engineers that will repair roads or build bridges.
3. The general, officers and cavalry are in the centre so that they may give orders and deploy quickly either way.
4. The vulnerable baggage-train of supplies, and siege-engines, are protected in the middle of the column.
5. The legions and auxiliaries follow at a leisurely pace (since impeded by the retinue ahead) marching six abreast, and led by their signifers and trumpeters. Their mule train with the personal baggage and legionary tents follows behind.
If fighting cavalry, the army will march in hollow-square formation to protect the baggage train. On broken ground the army may be split into individual columns to move faster. A Roman army marches at least 20-miles-per-day, and in single file can be ten miles long.
6. Supernumaries of supplementary forces or allied tribes (often keen to kill rival tribes) follow.
7. Rearguard - a covering force of infantry and cavalry ever alert for sneak attacks.
The Roman camp
The Roman camp is always erected in identical layout, so to be familiar to everyone in cases of emergency. It is positioned near a water source, but not in a defensive position, since the camp itself is defensive and full of soldiers (many enemies have tried attacking a Roman camp, but very few succeeded). Camp construction takes 3 hours overall, although the individual legionary tasks are much shorter. The surrounding ditch is excavated and the turf removed in wicker-baskets to build the ramparts. Food comprises cured-meat and grain that is ground in hand-mills to bake bread or thick porridge. Forage parties will hunt game or pillage enemy villages (auxiliaries are good at locating hidden stores). A Roman army on the march leaves the enemy countryside devastated in its wake.
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The Roman victory
Roman field-armies usually numbered up to 20,000, and defeated barbarian armies many times their size, due to their superior training, equipment and tactics. The heavy infantry advanced in silence, until at the last minute discharged their pila and charged yelling their war-cry with trumpets blasting. The general directed from the rear, where he could deploy reinforcements as needed. Once the enemy broke and fled, they were cut down by cavalry. Individual soldiers are rewarded for bravery with military honors that include the Mural Crown for first over a city-wall, Civic Crown for saving a fellow-soldier's life, gold torque neck-rings, hasta pura (ceremonial blunt spear), vexillum (miniature standard), phalarae (medals), or armillae (arm-bands). A tropaeum may be erected. If the emperor decides to hold a Triumph, then much of the army will return to Rome for a victory parade through the city. Badly hurt soldiers are discharged in missio causaria (injury or illness causing disablement). |
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An honorable and wealthy retirement
About half of the recruits lived long enough to be granted honesta missio (honorable discharge) after 25 years service, a military diploma, and praemia (pension) of 3000 denarii (14-years-pay) that was increased to 5000 denarii by Caracalla (198 AD). You may also be given farmland, or settled in a veteran's colony, often in new lands (where your presence helps keeps the locals pacified). Discharged auxiliaries are granted Roman citizenship. Many soldiers marry their defacto-wife camp-followers with whom they've had children. Some may miss army life so much that they sign up again.
Finally, you may leave your will conditional on your heirs erecting a nice (mass-produced) tombstone or carved sarcophagus that celebrates your service-record in the Roman army.
About half of the recruits lived long enough to be granted honesta missio (honorable discharge) after 25 years service, a military diploma, and praemia (pension) of 3000 denarii (14-years-pay) that was increased to 5000 denarii by Caracalla (198 AD). You may also be given farmland, or settled in a veteran's colony, often in new lands (where your presence helps keeps the locals pacified). Discharged auxiliaries are granted Roman citizenship. Many soldiers marry their defacto-wife camp-followers with whom they've had children. Some may miss army life so much that they sign up again.
Finally, you may leave your will conditional on your heirs erecting a nice (mass-produced) tombstone or carved sarcophagus that celebrates your service-record in the Roman army.
