Military religion
A soldier's religion above: The Tauroctony, Mithras slaying the Cosmic Bull, in the Museo Nazionale, Roma
Posted far from home and faced with death and injury, the Roman soldier had good reason for fear. Religion served to instill the men with confidence and discipline. The religious activities of the army were linked with those in civilian life. Festivals, ceremonies, official cult monuments, and oaths made the soldiers feel at home in the military. The ceremonies were strategically planned to coincide with travel and war. The Roman army often cleared the outside borders of their camps not only for protection from surprise attacks, but because this sacred area was set side for the gods. Roman religion had great propaganda value. When new lands were conquered the Romans often erected monuments to show that the land was now under Roman control. The institution of Roman religion in new provinces can be viewed as a method of "Romanizing" conquered peoples.
RELIGION IN CAMP
At the center of Roman military camp or fort was a shrine, known as the aedes. This housed the standards and the treasury of the unit. In the center of the shrine were the aquila and imagio, which were encircled by the standards of each cohort. The shrine was given precedence over all other structures. Other buildings were made of wood, this important building was made of stone. The shrine also served as a meeting place for troops and as the center of religious worship, this is due in part to the soldiers' worship of the contents of the shrine.
GODS of WAR
Jupiter
Jupiter, the god of light and sky, was the supreme god of the Roman pantheon. The army worshiped him especially as Jupiter Optimus Maximus, which means "all-good and all-powerful." His temple was the most important sanctuary in Rome and was also the center of political life. At this Temple wars were declared and the Roman army came to give thanks. The eagle was often considered his messenger, hence the importance of the eagle as a military standard. Eagle wings and lightening-bolts, both symbols of Jupiter, featured prominently on Roman shield blazons and other military equipment. The presence of an actual eagle in the sky could serve as an omen of defeat or as a sign of victory.
Mars
Mars was one of the most worshiped gods in the Roman military. The soldiers sought his protection in battle and credited his power with the Empire's expansion. Mars was the son of Jupiter and Juno, and was thought to be the father of Romulus and Remus, the mythical founders of Rome. Many temples were erected in his honor. The Temple of Mars Gradivus was particularly important to the Roman army. This was where the army gathered before they went to war. Sacrifices and prayers to Mars were held there to ensure a Roman victory. The Campus Martius, "field of Mars", which was situated beyond the city walls of Rome, was also dedicated to him. Here the Roman army was drilled for battle. In the Regia on theForum Romanum, the hastae Martiae (lances of Mars) were kept. When these lances were moved it was interpreted as a portent of war. The warlord was to lead the army in to battle while saying "Mars vigilia!", which meant "Mars awaken!". These actions and words were intended to make Mars awake and lead them to victory. Several festivals were held in honor of Mars: The Armilustrium, which was held on October 19, was very important to the Roman Army. During this festival the weapons of the soldiers were ritually purified and then stored for the winter.
Minerva
Minerva was the goddess of wisdom, medicine, science, and war. The daughter of Jupiter, she was often considered the patroness of the Roman army.
THE CULTS
The Cult of Juppiter Dolichenus
This cult was directly associated with the creation of weapons with iron. This cult was popular among the legions because of the soldiers strong associations with the metal. Juppiter Dolichenus is said to have originated from the sky, while others said he came from the place where iron was born. This cult had its greatest popularity in the early third century. Soldiers did not think the cult was properly established until a sanctuary was built. As a result, a sanctuary to Juppiter Dolichenus was erected in 191 AD in Rome.
FOREIGN RELIGIONS
Cults from conquered provinces were often incorporated into the military religious structure. These new cults were often very specific to particular units of the military. For example, when Rome expanded into Syria a cult was imported and became exclusively affiliated with the archers. In the mid second century AD the eastern gods, Serapis and Isis, were very popular, and they had an altar dedicated to them by the Roman army. Egyptian gods were very popular. Ancient Egyptian deities and pharaohs were made into Roman gods.
Mithraism
Originally based on the eastern frontier, Legio XV Apollinaris introduced the cult of Mithraism to the Roman west after transferred to the Danube in the third century AD. It became an important cult, especially popular with the officers. The myth stated that "Lord of Light," Mithras, killed a bull, spilling its blood to release human creativity. Several aspects of the cult were attractive to soldiers. It was a religion only open to men. It had a special training periods, initiation rites and a rigid rank structure, all similar to the army. One of its core beliefs was that of an afterlife.
Christianity
Essentially a religion of peace and forgiveness, Christianity had received little interest from the army types until well after it was made the Empire's The Roman government was largely tolerant of foreign religions. Most of the people incorporated into the Empire were polytheistic, worshiping many gods just as the Romans did. It was easy to accept the foreign gods, because to the Romans many of these appeared to be their very same gods worshiped under a different name. There were foreign deities which did not conveniently correspond with a Roman ones. This did not pose a problem as long as the followers of these gods welcomed Roman gods in their worship. However, there were two religions for which the Romans had very little tolerance: Judaism and Christianity. There was the belief that for Rome to prosper, its gods must be properly venerated. The nature of these monotheistic religions made this impossible. As a result, Jews and Christians across the empire suffered insult, harassment and persecution.Those in power were especially alarmed at Christianity's growth within the Empire. Whereas those of the Jewish faith tended to keep to themselves, Christians were actively promoting and spreading their belief. The excellent road system, shipping routes and general peace of the Empire allowed Christian missionaries to spread their word relatively quickly. There was a constant hostility toward the religion, sporadically bursting into state organized violence as in the persecutions lead by Emperors Nero, Domitian, Marcus Aurelius, Decius, Gallus, Valerian and Diocletian. Noted victims include Peter and Paul who were arrested on separate occasions and executed in Rome sometime around 65 -67 AD.
Initially more popular with the poor and underprivileged, Christianity was slow to enter the ranks of the Roman army. The New Testament of the Bible mentions several occasions were Roman soldiers were convinced by Jesus. For instance, Matthew 8:5 tells of a Roman centurion embracing the new faith. In following years, there would be Christians found in the Roman army. however, the number was very small. The army placed a strong emphasis on pagan ritual, something quite distasteful to devout Christians. A Christian would have very little reason to join the ranks of an establishment so often employed in the persecution of his fellows, and there would have been great pressure discouraging existing soldiers from taking up the religion.
The Roman Empire went through a dramatic change with the rise of Emperor Constantine. On October 28, 312 AD Constantine's army defeated and killed his rival, Maxentius, at battle of Milvian Bridge. The night before the battle, Constantine was commanded in a dream to place a sign of Christ on the shields of his soldiers. Twenty-five years later Eusebius, the early Christian historian, gives us a far different account in his "Life of Constantine" When Constantine and his army were on their march toward Rome they observed in broad daylight a strange phenomenon in the sky: a cross of light and the words "by this sign you will be victor." During the next night Christ appeared to Constantine and instructed him to place the heavenly sign on the shields and standards of his army. This new symbol became known as the labarum. It consists of the overlapping of the "Chi and Ro" (the first 2 Greek letters in the word "Christ") forming a cross shape.
Attributing his success to his new found faith, he made Christianity the official religion of the empire. Constantine ordered the end of any religious persecution in all of the Empire, a step he had already taken in his own provinces of Britannia and Gaul in 306. He proclaimed the Edict of Toleration at Milan in 313, in which Christianity was made legal throughout Rome. By 324 Constantine was in full control of a united empire. He relocated the imperial headquarters to Byzantium, whose name he then changed to Constantinople. The top political and military posts were now filled by Christians. Although they continued to operate, the old pagan temples were stripped of their former wealth, which was then shifted to Christian churches. The many fledgling churches across the empire thus acquired great strength and prosperity. In the East, the city of Constantinople would grow to be the capitol of a Christian Byzantine Empire, flourishing long after the Western Empire was lost to invading barbarians. Although no longer part of a unified Roman empire, western Europe would see the continued growth of Christianity.
It was in 337 AD that Constantine received Christian baptism on his deathbed. His chosen religion continued to grow eventually completely extinguishing the old pagan religion. It has been argued that Constantine was merely using the growing influence of Christianity for his own benefit. Whether or not this is true, it is agreed that the religion benefited tremendously from his patronage.
RELIGION IN CAMP
At the center of Roman military camp or fort was a shrine, known as the aedes. This housed the standards and the treasury of the unit. In the center of the shrine were the aquila and imagio, which were encircled by the standards of each cohort. The shrine was given precedence over all other structures. Other buildings were made of wood, this important building was made of stone. The shrine also served as a meeting place for troops and as the center of religious worship, this is due in part to the soldiers' worship of the contents of the shrine.
GODS of WAR
Jupiter
Jupiter, the god of light and sky, was the supreme god of the Roman pantheon. The army worshiped him especially as Jupiter Optimus Maximus, which means "all-good and all-powerful." His temple was the most important sanctuary in Rome and was also the center of political life. At this Temple wars were declared and the Roman army came to give thanks. The eagle was often considered his messenger, hence the importance of the eagle as a military standard. Eagle wings and lightening-bolts, both symbols of Jupiter, featured prominently on Roman shield blazons and other military equipment. The presence of an actual eagle in the sky could serve as an omen of defeat or as a sign of victory.
Mars
Mars was one of the most worshiped gods in the Roman military. The soldiers sought his protection in battle and credited his power with the Empire's expansion. Mars was the son of Jupiter and Juno, and was thought to be the father of Romulus and Remus, the mythical founders of Rome. Many temples were erected in his honor. The Temple of Mars Gradivus was particularly important to the Roman army. This was where the army gathered before they went to war. Sacrifices and prayers to Mars were held there to ensure a Roman victory. The Campus Martius, "field of Mars", which was situated beyond the city walls of Rome, was also dedicated to him. Here the Roman army was drilled for battle. In the Regia on theForum Romanum, the hastae Martiae (lances of Mars) were kept. When these lances were moved it was interpreted as a portent of war. The warlord was to lead the army in to battle while saying "Mars vigilia!", which meant "Mars awaken!". These actions and words were intended to make Mars awake and lead them to victory. Several festivals were held in honor of Mars: The Armilustrium, which was held on October 19, was very important to the Roman Army. During this festival the weapons of the soldiers were ritually purified and then stored for the winter.
Minerva
Minerva was the goddess of wisdom, medicine, science, and war. The daughter of Jupiter, she was often considered the patroness of the Roman army.
THE CULTS
The Cult of Juppiter Dolichenus
This cult was directly associated with the creation of weapons with iron. This cult was popular among the legions because of the soldiers strong associations with the metal. Juppiter Dolichenus is said to have originated from the sky, while others said he came from the place where iron was born. This cult had its greatest popularity in the early third century. Soldiers did not think the cult was properly established until a sanctuary was built. As a result, a sanctuary to Juppiter Dolichenus was erected in 191 AD in Rome.
FOREIGN RELIGIONS
Cults from conquered provinces were often incorporated into the military religious structure. These new cults were often very specific to particular units of the military. For example, when Rome expanded into Syria a cult was imported and became exclusively affiliated with the archers. In the mid second century AD the eastern gods, Serapis and Isis, were very popular, and they had an altar dedicated to them by the Roman army. Egyptian gods were very popular. Ancient Egyptian deities and pharaohs were made into Roman gods.
Mithraism
Originally based on the eastern frontier, Legio XV Apollinaris introduced the cult of Mithraism to the Roman west after transferred to the Danube in the third century AD. It became an important cult, especially popular with the officers. The myth stated that "Lord of Light," Mithras, killed a bull, spilling its blood to release human creativity. Several aspects of the cult were attractive to soldiers. It was a religion only open to men. It had a special training periods, initiation rites and a rigid rank structure, all similar to the army. One of its core beliefs was that of an afterlife.
Christianity
Essentially a religion of peace and forgiveness, Christianity had received little interest from the army types until well after it was made the Empire's The Roman government was largely tolerant of foreign religions. Most of the people incorporated into the Empire were polytheistic, worshiping many gods just as the Romans did. It was easy to accept the foreign gods, because to the Romans many of these appeared to be their very same gods worshiped under a different name. There were foreign deities which did not conveniently correspond with a Roman ones. This did not pose a problem as long as the followers of these gods welcomed Roman gods in their worship. However, there were two religions for which the Romans had very little tolerance: Judaism and Christianity. There was the belief that for Rome to prosper, its gods must be properly venerated. The nature of these monotheistic religions made this impossible. As a result, Jews and Christians across the empire suffered insult, harassment and persecution.Those in power were especially alarmed at Christianity's growth within the Empire. Whereas those of the Jewish faith tended to keep to themselves, Christians were actively promoting and spreading their belief. The excellent road system, shipping routes and general peace of the Empire allowed Christian missionaries to spread their word relatively quickly. There was a constant hostility toward the religion, sporadically bursting into state organized violence as in the persecutions lead by Emperors Nero, Domitian, Marcus Aurelius, Decius, Gallus, Valerian and Diocletian. Noted victims include Peter and Paul who were arrested on separate occasions and executed in Rome sometime around 65 -67 AD.
Initially more popular with the poor and underprivileged, Christianity was slow to enter the ranks of the Roman army. The New Testament of the Bible mentions several occasions were Roman soldiers were convinced by Jesus. For instance, Matthew 8:5 tells of a Roman centurion embracing the new faith. In following years, there would be Christians found in the Roman army. however, the number was very small. The army placed a strong emphasis on pagan ritual, something quite distasteful to devout Christians. A Christian would have very little reason to join the ranks of an establishment so often employed in the persecution of his fellows, and there would have been great pressure discouraging existing soldiers from taking up the religion.
The Roman Empire went through a dramatic change with the rise of Emperor Constantine. On October 28, 312 AD Constantine's army defeated and killed his rival, Maxentius, at battle of Milvian Bridge. The night before the battle, Constantine was commanded in a dream to place a sign of Christ on the shields of his soldiers. Twenty-five years later Eusebius, the early Christian historian, gives us a far different account in his "Life of Constantine" When Constantine and his army were on their march toward Rome they observed in broad daylight a strange phenomenon in the sky: a cross of light and the words "by this sign you will be victor." During the next night Christ appeared to Constantine and instructed him to place the heavenly sign on the shields and standards of his army. This new symbol became known as the labarum. It consists of the overlapping of the "Chi and Ro" (the first 2 Greek letters in the word "Christ") forming a cross shape.
Attributing his success to his new found faith, he made Christianity the official religion of the empire. Constantine ordered the end of any religious persecution in all of the Empire, a step he had already taken in his own provinces of Britannia and Gaul in 306. He proclaimed the Edict of Toleration at Milan in 313, in which Christianity was made legal throughout Rome. By 324 Constantine was in full control of a united empire. He relocated the imperial headquarters to Byzantium, whose name he then changed to Constantinople. The top political and military posts were now filled by Christians. Although they continued to operate, the old pagan temples were stripped of their former wealth, which was then shifted to Christian churches. The many fledgling churches across the empire thus acquired great strength and prosperity. In the East, the city of Constantinople would grow to be the capitol of a Christian Byzantine Empire, flourishing long after the Western Empire was lost to invading barbarians. Although no longer part of a unified Roman empire, western Europe would see the continued growth of Christianity.
It was in 337 AD that Constantine received Christian baptism on his deathbed. His chosen religion continued to grow eventually completely extinguishing the old pagan religion. It has been argued that Constantine was merely using the growing influence of Christianity for his own benefit. Whether or not this is true, it is agreed that the religion benefited tremendously from his patronage.
Christ as Sol Invictus: "Ceiling Mosaic - Christus helios, the mosaic of Sol in Mausoleum M, which is interpreted as Christ-Sol (Christ as the Sun). Mosaic of the Vatican grottoes under St. Peter's Basilica, on the ceiling of the tomb of the Julii. Representation of Christ as the sun-god Helios or Sol Invictus riding in his chariot. Early Christian and pagan beliefs are combined in this third century mosaic of Christ as a sun-god."
