Military dress - Roman tunic, cloak and scarf
Until the rise of re-enactment groups, the minutiae of soldiers' equipment and dress was of less concern to scholars than the structure and prospography of the Roman army. But now Roman military dress is studied with great interest, often tapping the archaeological, artistic and literary sources.
Graham Sumner writes (2009) that "the evidence shows that generally soldiers wore an off-white tunic which was suitable for everyday wear. The white tunic was replaced for military action by a red tunic in a range of shades, perhaps depending on the wealth or rank of the individual. This could be anything from a salmon pink to a dark purple-red. Un-dyed tunics of natural reddish-brown wool were also worn for everyday use or even as battledress. On dress occasions such as parades or religious festivals a white tunic was worn." Some soldiers and hunters wore green tunics, and guard tunics could be green, blue, red or white. It has been proposed that these colors could have been directly linked to the four main circus factions of the immensely popular chariot-races in the later Empire.
Graham Sumner writes (2009) that "the evidence shows that generally soldiers wore an off-white tunic which was suitable for everyday wear. The white tunic was replaced for military action by a red tunic in a range of shades, perhaps depending on the wealth or rank of the individual. This could be anything from a salmon pink to a dark purple-red. Un-dyed tunics of natural reddish-brown wool were also worn for everyday use or even as battledress. On dress occasions such as parades or religious festivals a white tunic was worn." Some soldiers and hunters wore green tunics, and guard tunics could be green, blue, red or white. It has been proposed that these colors could have been directly linked to the four main circus factions of the immensely popular chariot-races in the later Empire.
The Nile Mosaic in Museo Nazionale Archeologico di Palestrina
Samples of textiles from Vindolanda, Britain from the late first century AD show that of nine textiles that had positive dye results, eight had been dyed red and the nineth was a purple stripe. Another 41 textiles were undyed white wool. The red dye was from madder, rubia tinctorum, which was imported.
Pliny the Elder in his Natural History, XX, 3, records the most commmonly used red dye was madder, grown near Rome, but that the most prestigious red dye came from kermes, kermoccocus vennilio.
Pliny the Elder in his Natural History, XX, 3, records the most commmonly used red dye was madder, grown near Rome, but that the most prestigious red dye came from kermes, kermoccocus vennilio.
Nile fresco of pygmy soldiers, Pompeii, House of the Physician
Roman soldier mosaic from El Djem
Roman Soldier Fresco from the Tomb of the Scipios
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Martial described red cloaks in his Epigrams, XIV, 129: 'Roma magis fuscis vestitur, Gallia rufis, et placet hic pueris militibusque color.' 'Rome wears more brown, Gauls red, and boys and soldiers like this color red.' There is no clear pattern as to why soldiers wore certain cloak colors. The most common for both paenula and sagum style cloaks was a yellow-brown color but red, blue, off-white and white cloaks are also fairly well represented. "The most common 'uniform' in the pictoral sources appears to be a white tunic with a red or yellow-brown cloak." (Sumner:2009 p.118) A number of centurions as well as ordinary soldiers in the Egyptian portraits wear blue cloaks. A tribune and senior cohort centurion wear white cloaks in the Terentius fresco from Dura Europos while the rest of the men are wearing yellow-brown cloaks. |
Terentius fresco from Dura Europos
The color purple has a well known association with Imperial rank in ancient sources.
Emperor Justinian in a purple cloak. mosaic in San Vitale, Ravenna
The focale (plural focalia), also known as a sudarium ("sweat cloth"), was a woolen or linen scarf worn by ancient Roman military personnel. It protected the neck from chafing by the armor. The focale is depicted widely in military scenes from Roman art, such as the relief sculpture on the Arch of Septimius Severus in the Roman Forum and Trajan's Column. It is shown loosely knotted in the front, but is sometimes visible with the ends tucked inside the cuirass.
In Latin literature, focale is a general word for a scarf or wrapping for the throat. A focale was one of the gifts that might be given for the December festival of Saturnalia, according to Martial. In one of his satires, Horace lists focalia among the "badges of illness" (insignia morbi). In describing the correct attire for public speaking, Quintilian advises against wearing a focale, unless required by poor health.
Focalia worn by cavalry troopers and some infantry on a panel from Trajan's Column. Although a sudarium often is used as a handkerchief, it can be worn like the focale as a neckerchief. When Suetonius describes the overly casual attire of Nero, the emperor is barefoot, unbelted, and dressed in evening wear (synthesis), with a sudarium around his neck. In late antiquity, orarium (Greek orarion) might be synonymous with focale, as in the description of military attire in the Vision of Dorotheus, and in a papyrus (dated 350–450 AD) listing military clothes.
The focale is sometimes seen as one of the precursors of the necktie. Cesare Vecellio (1530–1606) mentions the focale, calling it a cravata (cravat), as worn by Roman soldiers in his book on the history of fashion. It has been compared to the amice (amictus) worn by Roman Catholic priests, which is depicted from the 6th century onward, as in the Ravenna mosaics.
In Latin literature, focale is a general word for a scarf or wrapping for the throat. A focale was one of the gifts that might be given for the December festival of Saturnalia, according to Martial. In one of his satires, Horace lists focalia among the "badges of illness" (insignia morbi). In describing the correct attire for public speaking, Quintilian advises against wearing a focale, unless required by poor health.
Focalia worn by cavalry troopers and some infantry on a panel from Trajan's Column. Although a sudarium often is used as a handkerchief, it can be worn like the focale as a neckerchief. When Suetonius describes the overly casual attire of Nero, the emperor is barefoot, unbelted, and dressed in evening wear (synthesis), with a sudarium around his neck. In late antiquity, orarium (Greek orarion) might be synonymous with focale, as in the description of military attire in the Vision of Dorotheus, and in a papyrus (dated 350–450 AD) listing military clothes.
The focale is sometimes seen as one of the precursors of the necktie. Cesare Vecellio (1530–1606) mentions the focale, calling it a cravata (cravat), as worn by Roman soldiers in his book on the history of fashion. It has been compared to the amice (amictus) worn by Roman Catholic priests, which is depicted from the 6th century onward, as in the Ravenna mosaics.
Focalia worn by cavalry troopers and some infantry on a panel from Trajan's Column
